Cellular Concrete: Properties, Types, and Practical Uses in Modern Construction
Cellular concrete is a proven, versatile solution for void filling, load reduction, soil stabilization, and specialty grouting applications. Its lightweight, flowable nature allows engineers and contractors to solve complex ground and concrete problems quickly, safely, and with minimal disruption. From slab leveling to utility abandonments, cellular concrete offers performance advantages that traditional materials often cannot match.
Key Takeaways
- Cellular concrete reduces loads on soils and structures while remaining highly flowable and easy to place.
- Pumpable installation minimizes excavation, shortens schedules, and allows rapid return to service.
- Proven across demanding applications, including void filling, slab stabilization, pressure grouting, thermal insulation, and utility work.
What Is Cellular Concrete?
Cellular concrete is a cementitious material containing millions of uniformly distributed air voids, created by adding preformed foam or gas-forming agents to a cement slurry. This unique composition results in a dramatically lower unit weight than conventional concrete, which typically weighs 140–150 pounds per cubic foot.
Terminology and Definitions
The terminology surrounding this material can be confusing. The table below clarifies the most common terms:
Term | Description |
Cellular concrete | General term for air-entrained lightweight concrete |
Foam concrete | Same material, emphasizing the foaming production method |
Aerated concrete | Often refers to chemically aerated factory products |
Lightweight cellular concrete (LCC) | Common term in geotechnical applications |
Cellular grout | Typically site-pumped, flowable fill for void filling and utility grouting |
The distinction matters. Cellular grout typically refers to highly flowable, pumpable mixes designed for void filling and utility applications. Cellular concrete, on the other hand, also encompasses factory-manufactured elements, including wall blocks, floor panels, and prefabricated structural components.
Historical Background and Characteristics
Cellular concrete traces its origins to Sweden in the early 1920s, when architect J.A. Eriksson developed the first practical production methods for cellular concrete. By the 1960s, the material had been widely adopted across Europe for lightweight slabs, roofs, and wall blocks. Today, cellular concrete is a staple of modern construction projects worldwide.
Visually, cellular concrete is pale in colour with a fine, porous texture. It is noticeably lighter than conventional concrete—blocks can often be lifted by hand, where traditional masonry would require two workers. The material can be cut, sawn, or shaped using ordinary tools, making it highly versatile for both site-cast applications and prefabricated building systems.
Composition and Production Methods
Two main production families dominate the cellular concrete market: site-mixed preformed foam concrete and factory-made autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) elements. Each serves different project needs and offers distinct advantages.
Site-Mixed Cellular Concrete
For site-mixed cellular concrete, the typical ingredients include:
- Portland or blended cement (Type I, II, or IL)
- Water
- Optional supplementary cementitious materials (fly ash, slag)
- Preformed foam generated from protein-based or synthetic foaming agents
The defining component is the foam. A foaming agent mixed with water and air creates a stable, shaving-cream-like foam that is blended into the cement slurry. By adjusting the foam content, contractors can achieve fresh densities ranging from approximately 24 pcf (≈385 kg/m³) to 120 pcf (≈1,920 kg/m³).
On-site production typically follows this process: bulk cement is delivered to the project and mixed with water in truck-mounted grout mixers. Preformed foam is then injected at controlled ratios. The resulting highly flowable material is pumped continuously, with daily production rates commonly ranging from 200 to 1,500 cubic yards, depending on equipment capacity and project scale.
Factory-Made Autoclaved Products
Autoclaved aerated concrete follows a different manufacturing process. Producers combine sand, lime, cement, water, and aluminum powder; the aluminum reacts chemically to generate gas bubbles throughout the mixture. After moulding and initial curing, the material is wire-cut into precise blocks or panels and then autoclaved at approximately 180°C for 10–12 hours.
For specification purposes, typical water-to-cement rat01ios range from 0.40 to 0.80, depending on target density. Achievable compressive strengths range from roughly 50 psi for ultra-lightweight mixes to 1,000 psi or more for denser formulations.
Types of Cellular Concrete and Grout
Engineers select among several cellular mix types based on strength requirements, permeability targets, and cost constraints. The primary variables defining practical “types” include:
- Target density
- Foam content
- Presence or absence of sand or aggregates
- Cell structure (open vs. closed)
Understanding these distinctions helps you specify the right material for each application.
Pure (Neat) Cellular Concrete
Pure, or neat, cellular concrete contains only cement, water, and foam—without sand or coarse aggregate. Small amounts of supplementary cementitious materials may be included, but no granular fillers are added.
This type excels in:
- Ultra-lightweight fills where minimizing dead load is critical
- Roof deck insulation applications
- Large-volume void filling where compressive strengths of 50–150 psi are sufficient
- Projects requiring long pumping distances
The absence of sand significantly reduces wear on pumps and hoses, allowing high production rates with minimal maintenance. Typical densities range from 20–60 pcf, although this low weight comes with an inherent tradeoff: a limited load-bearing capacity.
Sanded Cellular Concrete
Sanded mixes incorporate well-graded fine aggregate—typically sand with a diameter of up to 4 mm—along with cement, water, and foam. This increases density, compressive strength, and abrasion resistance compared to neat mixes.
Property | Neat Mix | Sanded Mix |
Density range | 20–60 pcf | 50–130 pcf |
Typical strength | 50–300 psi | 200–1,000 psi |
Pumpability | Excellent | Good (higher pressure required) |
Best applications | Insulation, void filling | Structural toppings, heavy backfill |
Sanded cellular concrete is well-suited for underwater placements, higher-strength backfills behind retaining walls, and structural toppings requiring several hundred psi of compressive strength. While sanded mixes require higher pumping pressures and more robust equipment, they can reduce cement content per cubic yard, improving cost efficiency for higher-duty applications.
Closed-Cell Cellular Concrete
In closed-cell mixes, each foam bubble is fully encapsulated by cement paste, creating isolated air voids that significantly restrict water movement between pores. This results in very low permeability.
Closed-cell cellular grout is commonly specified for:
- Annular grouting around utility and pipeline installations
- Tunnel linings requiring groundwater control
- Waterproof backfills where leakage must be minimized
An important relationship emerges: lower-density mixes behave more like coarse sand in terms of water transmission, while higher-density closed-cell mixes approach the impermeability of conventional concrete. For example, behind a metro tunnel lining, closed-cell grout can prevent groundwater migration while adding minimal load—a performance that traditional backfill materials cannot achieve.
Open-Cell Cellular Concrete
Open-cell cellular concrete utilizes foam systems and mix designs that create interconnected pores, enabling the controlled movement of air and water through the hardened material. Permeability can be quite high, on the order of centimetres per second.
Typical applications include:
- Drainage layers beneath pavements
- Landscaping bases requiring infiltration
- Engineered permeability zones
One important consideration: newer cements such as Type IL may reduce permeability compared to older Type I or II open-cell mixes. For drainage-critical designs, always verify permeability data from the manufacturer rather than relying on historical assumptions.
In practice, the distinction between open- and closed-cell systems comes down to water behaviour. Closed-cell mixes resist freeze–thaw damage and limit moisture accumulation, while open-cell mixes promote drainage but require careful detailing in cold climates.
Cellular Concrete with Special Aggregates or Additives
Beyond standard formulations, specialized mixes address specific project demands:
- Lightweight aggregate mixes incorporate pumice, expanded shale, or volcanic aggregates to enhance the strength-to-weight ratio for structural applications, bridging the gap between pure cellular concrete and traditional lightweight aggregate concrete.
- Expansive aggregate mixes use materials that retain moisture during curing, which is particularly valuable in hot climates where rapid drying can hinder strength development. These mixes also enhance fire protection around steel elements by maintaining a moisture buffer.
- Dispersants and plasticizers improve cement hydration and flowability while reducing the water–cement ratio, resulting in higher compressive strength without increasing density.
A real-world example illustrates this versatility: a 2015 stadium roof renovation in the southwestern United States used pumice-enhanced cellular concrete to achieve required insulation values while meeting seismic performance criteria. The reduced weight lowered demands on the lateral force-resisting system during seismic events.
Main Applications of Cellular Concrete
Cellular concrete is used in two broad application categories: geotechnical and underground work (such as fills, grouting, and soil stabilization) and above-ground building elements (including blocks, panels, and slabs). Its unique combination of low density, flowability, and strength makes it well-suited to both.
Void Filling and Soil Stabilization
Low-density cellular concrete excels at filling abandoned basements, mine voids, sinkholes, and cavities beneath slabs, thereby preventing settlement and subsidence. Its highly flowable nature allows it to penetrate complex, hidden void networks without the need for extensive excavation—an important advantage over controlled low-strength material (CLSM) and other conventional flowable fill alternatives.
Common applications include:
- Abandoned underground storage tanks
- Mine shaft and tunnel abandonments
- Sinkhole remediation
- Cavity filling beneath settled pavements
In highway slab stabilization projects, contractors pump cellular concrete beneath settled pavement sections to restore uniform support. The material readily flows into irregular spaces, fills voids completely, and gains sufficient strength to allow infrastructure to reopen within hours or days, rather than weeks.
Typical placement techniques include:
- Low-pressure pumping through small-diameter access holes
- Placement in staged lifts to manage heat generation in large volumes
- Verification using core samples or penetrometer testing
- Surface monitoring to detect lift or unintended displacement
Utility Grouting and Abandonments
When water mains, sewers, and industrial pipelines reach the end of their service life, cellular grout can be used to completely fill them, preventing collapse and subsequent ground settlement. This approach is significantly faster and far less disruptive than traditional excavation and removal methods.
Low density provides a critical advantage during annular space grouting around slip-lined pipes by reducing buoyant uplift on the host pipe. Conventional dense grouts can generate enough upward force to float plastic liners during installation—a risk that is effectively eliminated by specifying cellular grout at appropriate densities.
Consider a typical urban project: filling a 500 mm diameter, 400-meter-long cast-iron water main with 35–40 pcf cellular grout. Using bulk cement delivered to the site and high-production pumping equipment, contractors can complete the work at rates exceeding 200 cubic yards per hour, with minimal disruption to traffic. This efficiency is particularly valuable in congested administrative districts and downtown corridors.
Load-Reducing Fills and Backfills
Cellular concrete is often used as an alternative to traditional soil or granular backfill to reduce both vertical and lateral loads on retaining walls, bridge abutments, and buried structures. This lightweight backfill approach has fundamentally changed how engineers design projects on compressible soils.
In highway embankments constructed over soft clays or peat, reducing dead load helps mitigate long-term settlement and improves seismic performance. Modern ultra-lightweight fills—down to approximately 24 pcf—allow construction over poor soils without the need for deep foundations. This capability is especially valuable in coastal and river delta regions, where conventional solutions often require extensive and costly ground improvement.
Key design considerations for lightweight fill applications include:
- Required modulus of elasticity for effective load distribution
- Factor of safety against flotation in high groundwater conditions
- Interface friction between the cellular concrete and adjacent soils
- Settlement compatibility with neighbouring structures
Structural Repairs and Slab Leveling
Cellular grout is commonly used to stabilize and re-level existing slabs, floors, and pavements by injecting a controlled, low-strength material beneath areas of differential settlement. Compared with traditional mudjacking, cellular concrete offers several key advantages:
- Lower injection pressures, reducing the risk of additional cracking or damage
- Lower unit weight, minimizing added load on weak or compromised subgrades
- Superior flowability, allowing the material to move around reinforcing steel and obstructions
- Faster setting times, enabling a rapid return to service
Facilities such as warehouse floors or airport aprons can be stabilized in planned phases, with operations often resuming within hours of placement. Density and compressive strength are carefully calibrated to support design loads without overstressing weakened elements, typically targeting a range of 50–300 psi, depending on service conditions and loading requirements.
Buoyancy Control for Buried Structures
In high-groundwater conditions, cellular concrete is placed around tanks, culverts, and utility vaults to manage net buoyant forces and prevent flotation. By selecting an appropriate density, contractors can balance uplift pressures from groundwater against the combined dead weight of the structure and the surrounding lightweight fill.
Common applications include:
- Underground fuel storage tanks
- Stormwater detention chambers
- Pumping stations in saturated soils
- Utility vaults in coastal or high–water table areas
Environmental and construction-stage considerations are critical in these applications. Proper drainage, venting, and staged placement help prevent unintended flotation during the installation process. Projects have encountered significant challenges when premature flooding or unexpected groundwater intrusion occurred before the cellular concrete had adequately set.
Blocks, Panels, and Building Elements
Factory-made cellular concrete blocks and panels, including autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) products, are widely used for exterior and interior walls, floor planks, and roof elements. These systems have been common in European construction since the late 20th century and have gained significant traction in North American markets over the past two decades.
Typical Specifications for Cellular Concrete Building Elements
| Element | Thickness Range | Density Range | Primary Benefits |
| Wall blocks | 5–30 cm | 400–800 kg/m³ | Thermal insulation, fire resistance |
| Floor planks | 15–25 cm | 500–700 kg/m³ | Lightweight, rapid assembly |
| Roof panels | 10–20 cm | 400–600 kg/m³ | Improved thermal performance |
Many low-rise and mid-rise residential projects constructed in the 2000s and 2010s adopted cellular concrete blocks to achieve energy-efficient building envelopes and rapid construction schedules. However, these elements typically have lower compressive strength than conventional concrete masonry units, requiring compatible plasters, renders, and anchoring systems. Addressing these detailed requirements early in the design and specification phase is essential to ensure long-term performance and constructability.
Performance Characteristics and Advantages
Cellular concrete’s performance is driven by its internal air-void system. While reduced density delivers numerous benefits, it also limits ultimate strength. Understanding these trade-offs is essential for specifying the right material for each application.
Lightweight Nature and Load Reduction
Depending on the mix design, cellular concrete is significantly lighter than conventional concrete. This reduction in dead load lowers demands on foundations and slabs, enabling construction in conditions that would otherwise require deep foundations or extensive ground improvement.
The seismic advantages are particularly notable. Lower mass results in reduced inertial forces during earthquakes, decreasing demand on lateral force-resisting systems. In high-seismic regions, this can enable the use of smaller structural members, resulting in significant reductions in overall construction costs.
Design example: Replacing a conventional 120 pcf soil backfill with 30 pcf cellular concrete behind a retaining wall can reduce lateral earth pressures by approximately 75%. This reduction often permits thinner wall sections, smaller footings, and less reinforcement—cost savings that frequently exceed the premium associated with cellular concrete.
Flowability, Pumpability, and Construction Speed
Cellular concrete is self-leveling and highly flowable, allowing it to spread under its own weight into complex geometries without vibration or mechanical compaction. This eliminates the need for layered placement and compaction typically required for traditional backfill materials.
Its ability to be pumped over long distances through small-diameter hoses reduces the need for access trenches and heavy earthmoving equipment. On large geotechnical projects, portable batching plants can place up to 1,500 cubic yards per day, significantly compressing schedules for highway and utility rehabilitation work.
These characteristics result in:
- Reduced labour requirements
- Fewer truck trips to and from the site
- Smaller construction footprints
- Less disruption to adjacent operations
Thermal Insulation and Energy Performance
The air-void structure of cellular concrete provides meaningful thermal resistance. Its low thermal conductivity enhances building envelope performance by reducing heat transfer, which in turn lowers heating and cooling demands in structures that use cellular concrete for walls, roofs, or slabs.
Typical Thermal Performance Values
| Density | Thermal Conductivity | Approximate R-Value per Inch |
| 25 pcf | 0.10 W/m·K | R-3.5 |
| 40 pcf | 0.15 W/m·K | R-2.5 |
| 60 pcf | 0.25 W/m·K | R-1.5 |
Although cellular concrete offers notable insulating properties, a single wall section may not satisfy stringent energy codes on its own. For example, some Canadian jurisdictions require wall assemblies with an R-value of 24 or higher. In practice, combining cellular concrete with exterior insulation, cavity walls, or layered systems can achieve high-performance envelopes.
Common applications include flat roof insulation layers, insulated floor planks, and under-slab thermal breaks in energy-efficient buildings.
Acoustic and Fire Performance
The porous structure of cellular concrete contributes to effective sound reduction, particularly when blocks or panels are combined with finishing layers such as plasterboard or acoustic panels. Heavier or thicker cellular elements generally provide better sound attenuation, while thinner units may require supplemental insulation to meet more demanding acoustic criteria.
Fire resistance is one of the most significant advantages of cellular concrete. Its low thermal conductivity, mineral-based composition, and lack of combustible components result in excellent fire performance. Manufacturer data commonly indicates 2–4 hour fire ratings for typical wall thicknesses, making cellular concrete suitable for industrial, residential, and public buildings—including administrative facilities subject to stringent fire codes.
Economic and Logistical Advantages
Lower material density means greater volume per ton of cement, reducing raw material consumption and transportation demands compared to traditional backfills and conventional concrete. In many projects, a single bulk cement delivery combined with on-site mixing can replace dozens of dump-truck loads of soil, significantly reducing traffic, environmental impact, and neighbourhood disruption.
The construction industry continues to adopt cellular concrete because it offers:
- Easier handling, reducing labour and equipment costs
- Rapid assembly of blocks and panels, shortening construction schedules
- Elimination of compaction requirements for fills, reducing equipment needs
- Use of bulk cement and foam generators, minimizing truck traffic
Limitations, Challenges, and Design Considerations
Despite its many advantages, cellular concrete is not a universal replacement for traditional concrete or soil systems. Successful use depends on appropriate design, careful detailing, and strict quality control.
Strength and Structural Limitations
Typical low-density cellular concrete (approximately 25–40 pcf) achieves compressive strengths in the 50–300 psi range. This is inadequate for primary load-bearing elements such as columns, heavily loaded foundations, or high-traffic pavements. Even higher-density cellular mixes remain significantly weaker than conventional reinforced concrete.
As a result, cellular concrete is generally limited to the following applications:
- Non-structural fills and backfills
- Insulation and thermal layers
- Void-filling applications
- Light-duty floor toppings
For example, Canadian building codes restrict the use of cellular concrete in foundations and ground-contact structural slabs due to the requirements for strength and durability. Always coordinate with a structural engineer to confirm that cellular concrete is used within appropriate design limits.
Moisture, Permeability, and Durability Concerns
Open-cell mixes permit significant water movement and therefore require careful detailing in freeze–thaw climates or moisture-sensitive environments. Even closed-cell materials can absorb moisture over time if not properly detailed, which can potentially affect insulation performance and long-term durability.
Key precautions include:
- Proper curing during early strength development
- Use of control joints to manage shrinkage cracking
- Application of compatible, vapour-permeable surface coatings
- Avoidance of prolonged ponding or standing water
When used for walls or facades, cellular concrete typically requires protective exterior finishes—such as plasters, renders, or cladding systems—to manage weather exposure. While the material is resistant to many environmental factors, it is not fully impervious.
Typical Thermal Performance Values
Buoyancy and Placement in Saturated Conditions
Very low-density cellular fills can become buoyant in high groundwater environments, creating a risk of uplift or material migration if not adequately restrained. In tunnel or underwater applications, improper sequencing or excessive pumping pressure can result in uneven placement or flotation of adjacent structures.
Effective mitigation measures include:
- Placement in staged lifts with sufficient setting time between pours
- Careful density selection based on anticipated groundwater levels
- Active groundwater and surface drainage control during placement
- Continuous monitoring of pumping pressures
A coastal utility corridor project illustrates these risks: unexpected heavy rainfall during a weekend shutdown caused partially placed cellular grout to shift. The takeaway is clear—always plan for weather contingencies and maintain drainage systems throughout the placement process.
Quality Control and Execution Risks
Consistent foam quality, precise mix ratios, and adequate mixing energy are critical to preventing segregation, weak zones, and density variability in cellular concrete. Common field issues, along with their causes and preventive measures, are summarized below:
Problem | Cause | Prevention |
Over-foaming | Excessive foaming agent | Calibrated dosing equipment |
Under-foaming | Insufficient foam | Regular density verification |
Segregation | Inadequate mixing | Sufficient mixing time and energy |
Line clogging | Sanded mix incompatibility | Proper pump and hose selection |
Typical field quality control procedures include measuring fresh density using a mud balance or pressurized density meter, casting small cubes or cylinders for compressive strength testing, and visually inspecting cores to confirm uniform air-void distribution.
For large utility grouting or embankment projects, engaging experienced specialty contractors is essential. The cost of failures—such as void collapse, excessive settlement, or schedule delays—often far exceeds any short-term savings achieved by using inexperienced crews.
Design and Specification Tips for Professionals
Successful cellular concrete applications depend on aligning mix design, target density, and construction detailing with the project’s specific performance requirements. Early coordination with material suppliers and specialty installers enables the optimization of mix designs and logistics prior to the start of construction.
Selecting Density and Strength
Density selection is the primary design decision:
- Lightweight mixes (20–40 pcf): Load reduction, thermal insulation, void filling
- Medium-density mixes (40–80 pcf): Moderate strength with weight savings
- Higher-density mixes (80–120 pcf): Increased strength and abrasion resistance
Specifications should clearly define both the target fresh density and the required 28-day compressive strength, including acceptable tolerance ranges. For most geotechnical fill applications, compressive strengths of 50–300 psi are sufficient; however, structural toppings and traffic-bearing elements may require compressive strengths of 500 psi or more.
Example specification language: “Cellular concrete fill: 30 ± 3 pcf fresh density; minimum 28-day compressive strength of 100 psi; closed-cell structure.”
Choosing Between Open- and Closed-Cell Mixes
Permeability requirements typically govern the selection of cell structure:
- Closed-cell mixes: Waterproofing, containment, freeze–thaw resistance
- Open-cell mixes: Drainage layers, venting applications, infiltration systems
Most utility and tunnel projects default to closed-cell mixes unless a defined drainage function is required. When specifying open-cell layers near foundations, coordinate closely with geotechnical engineers to manage groundwater behaviour.
Avoid relying solely on rules of thumb. Always request permeability and performance test data from manufacturers or specialty contractors before finalizing specifications.
Coordinating With Codes, Standards, and Testing
Building codes do not treat cellular concrete uniformly across jurisdictions. In many regions, project-specific engineering analysis or supplemental testing is required to substantiate structural capacity, durability, or fire-resistance claims. Before specifying cellular concrete, contractors should:
- Review local building code requirements for the intended application
- Reference applicable material standards governing density, compressive strength, and fire performance
- Consider mock-ups or trial pours for major or nonstandard installations
- Develop maintenance and inspection plans for exposed or critical elements
Trial pours are particularly valuable because they confirm pumpability, placement behaviour, actual curing times, and achieved in-place densities under field conditions. This upfront investment often prevents costly rework and construction delays later in the project, especially when cellular concrete is used extensively or in critical applications.
How Osco Mudjacking & Construction Can Help
With over 70 years of experience serving Edmonton and Central to Northern Alberta, Osco Mudjacking & Construction Ltd. is one of Western Canada’s most trusted names in concrete repair and pressure grouting. Since 1952, Osco has specialized in void filling, slab stabilization, and ground improvement using time-tested methods and modern materials.
Osco offers specialized pressure grouting services, including lightweight cellular concrete and thermal grout, with custom mix designs tailored to each project’s technical requirements. Whether the need is slab leveling, pipe abandonment, utility grouting, or load-reducing fills, Osco’s experienced crews and extensive equipment fleet ensure efficient, safe, and durable results.
Serving industrial, commercial, residential, and municipal clients, Osco combines local expertise, proven reliability, and modern solutions—making them a trusted partner for cellular concrete projects of any scale.
Summary
Cellular concrete is not a one-size-fits-all material, but when properly designed and installed, it delivers exceptional value in geotechnical, structural repair, and infrastructure applications. Its ability to reduce loads, flow into complex voids, and be tailored to specific performance requirements makes it a preferred solution for engineers, municipalities, and facility owners. Successful projects depend on experience, proper mix design, and skilled execution.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can cellular concrete be reinforced with rebar or mesh?
Reinforcement is uncommon in very low-density mixes (below 40 pcf) due to the limited bond strength; however, higher-density panels and slabs can be reinforced with proper design. Fibre reinforcement is often preferred, and manufacturer guidance is essential.
How long does cellular concrete take to cure before loading or construction?
Initial set typically occurs within 4–8 hours, with light loading or backfill possible after 24–72 hours. Full design strength is generally reached at 28 days, with weather conditions affecting timing.
Is cellular concrete environmentally friendly?
Cellular concrete reduces material use and trucking but still relies on Portland cement, which has a high carbon footprint. Its overall environmental benefit is greatest where lightweight fills eliminate the need for deep foundations or ground improvement.
Can cellular concrete be used in cold or freeze–thaw climates?
Yes, closed-cell mixes perform well in freeze–thaw conditions when properly detailed and drained. Adequate curing and moisture control are essential for long-term durability.
How does cellular concrete perform as a substrate for finishes?
Low-density mixes require primers, bonding layers, or higher-density toppings to support finishes. Higher-density cellular concrete provides better performance for heavy flooring, membranes, and pavements.